GIS-based spatio-temporal and geostatistical analysis of groundwater parameters of Lahore region Pakistan and their source characterization

Assessment of groundwater quality is critical, especially in the areas where it continuously deteriorating due to unplanned industrial growth. This study utilizes GIS-based spatio-temporal and geostatistical tools characterize parameters Lahore region. For this purpose, a large data set (for period 2005–2016) was obtained from deep unconfined aquifers. water index (WQI) entropy (EWQI) models were prepared using 15 pH (power hydrogen), TDS (Total dissolve solids), EC (Electrical conductivity), TH hardness), Ca2+ (Calcium), Mg2+ (Magnesium), Na+ (Sodium), K+ (Potassium), Cl− (Chloride), As (Arsenic), F (Fluoride), Fe (Iron), HCO3– (Bicarbonate), NO3− (Nitrate), SO42− (Sulfate). The analysis exhibits that 12% samples fell within category poor helped identify permanent epicenters area. per theory, Fe, NO3−, K, F, As, are major physicochemical influence quality. revealed an extreme behavior values along Hudiara drain, overall high arsenic concentration levels most geochemical shows chemistry strongly by subsurface soil interaction. research highlights significance analyze sets at regional level for detailed source characterization studies.